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Editor's Note

In-A-Relationship
Sarah Mae D. Consolacion




The environment is a complex structure of different intertwining species. This species play as actors for the environment’s development and fertilization allowing it to flourish and produce more. In this context, the actors have to be in constant touch with each other so they may perform their apparent responsibility more efficiently. Hence, they are permanently in-a-relationship.
       Notice how much comfort do plants give to the world. A part from their being so beautiful physique, they aid human through food production, cleaning the air and protecting them from devastating calamities like food. In order to do this, plants ought to multiply themselves so as to answer their basic purposes of existence. Their manner of conduction is through producing nectar containing- flower extremely attractive to insects and other interested animals like birds. Once these animals made a contact to the plant in the aim of sipping its nectar or gorging its beautiful flower then made another contact to a different plant species right after, pollination through the transfer of pollen from one plant to another take place. Hence, the plants had perpetuated its kind.
                Let’s not overlook however the mechanism that took place in the process of perpetuation. When a bee for instance, settles in the flower of plants to sip its nectar, relationships have been turned on. We call this the commensalism-mutualism relationship. Since settling of the bee on the flower doesn’t harm the plant at anyway, but rather makes the plants be able to pollinate through the transfer of its pollen to another plant, so goes the name of relationship. It’s basically well understood in this line: “I’ll benefit from you, I won’t give you harm but profits instead.”
                In some partnerships however, there is only one species who gains the advantage. The phenomenon is called parasitism. The lice and human association is a good representation of this. In the aim of perpetuating the lice’s kind as well as securing its nourishment, it resides to human’s head and sips all the nutrition it can. This however causes jeopardy in the part of the host. The lice’s residing on his head costs him/ his blood and vital nutrients the disturbance to the parasite caused whenever the head.
                Competition is in addition of vital interaction for survival. In here, species both of similar and different kind struggle for some if not every necessary resource available. The plant in the virgin forest for instance compete for space, and even light from the sun. This due to the very thick canopy which makes sunlight enables to penetrate deep-down the forest.  
                Finally, predation where the strongest and most cunning dominates while lower forms are engulfed marks another cardinal mechanism of species survival. In this context, prey which is hunted by its predators has to exert all the efforts he can to escape and save his life. Meanwhile, the predator has to employ the best strategy he can so as not to let the prey vanish.
                Nature had indeed so many ways of putting itself into order. Of all the interaction that exists, one vital principle stands at the centerpoint. That is, every species has to be in constant relationship with another species in order to allow life normally run and hence be balance. 

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Mutualism

On Mutual Benefits
Scott Gil C. Clara



                 An ecosystem is where living and non-living things interact with one another. Plants, animals, and the other living things live in and get there from the environment. Plants make their own food. They do this with sunlight, water, nutrients, and carbon dioxide. The food that they manufacture is also used by other living organisms to sustain life. The environment as a whole is the home of all their living things. Earth indeed one big ecosystem.
                Organisms interact with one another in many different ways. When organisms live in close association with one another, they are said to have a symbiotic relationship.
                The most common symbiotic relationship. Individual in this relationship all benefits from the association establish. There is a close association with each other. One typical example is exhibited by corals and algae. The coral provide shelter for the algae (zooxanthellae) that live on the polyps. The algae in return give nourishment to the corals. The photosynthetic activity of algae accelerates the disposition of calcium carbonate.
                Mutualism may also be observed in the relationship in the carabao and the cattle egret. The birds eats the fleas from the carabao's body that in turn provides protection and shelter for the bird.
                It may also be demonstrated by the fishes-grouper and wrasse. The grouper allows the wrasse to dart in and out of its mouth. The wrasse cleans the grouper’s mouth in exchange for the small pieces of food that it can get.
                In the rice field, azolla (water fern) is grown together with the rice plant. Azolla allows an alga, anabaena to live with it. The anabaena fixes nitrogen in the soil making it fertile. The azolla and anabaena both benefit from the process of each other.
                 The gas exchange between plants and animals is another example of mutualism. Oxygen needed by animals is given off by plants while the carbon dioxide needed by plants that is given by animals.

                This is the world of mutualism.

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Commensalism

Orchid in a Tree
Jennifer C. Estigoy


Every single day in our world, the drama of life unfolds even in the most ordinary setting. Take the lowly tree in your backyard, under the tree; you may see grasses and even variety of insects. It may not be obvious to you at once, but these plants and animals interact with each other. You may find some insects feeding on the leaves or you may notice how butterflies and birds avoid you when you go near them.
                Your backyard may also have a source of water, unpaved soil, stones and rocks. The plants and animals you will interact not only themselves, but also with non-living things such as the soil, water and air.
                In an ecosystem, certain relationship exists. One symbiotic relationship is commensalism. Unlike termites, orchids the attached to a tree do not affect the tree at all. The tree provides support to orchid but it does not gain or lost anything. A symbiotic relationship where one individual benefits from another without causing harm.

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Competition

Bourne Supremacy 
Rowell C. Tuquib

  
               Our earth however huge and vast is never enough for creatures to settle and be contented. A sustained struggle for supremacy perpetually exists. This may happen among species of similar and of different kind. This is a fight not basically for existence but for power.
                Every animal strive for its own niche were it can abundantly consume and utilize all the necessary resources available. In many mammals for instance, male usually fight for territory in order to posses females to be made as mates for breeding. Further, a territory is worth the fight if it is to extensively fill with various kinds of food vital to sustain the conqueror’s life as well as the might-be-new born. This is why sea lions and fur seeds fight over a patch of beach.
                In a single pack, it is almost impossible for species that shows the possession of the greatest force among the members. Hence, lessen the entire lesser and least strong yield to him. This social organization lessen squabbling against member of the packs since it is already well- defined who gets the choice of mates or the best food. The mechanism by which this could happen is through fighting. Every species has to prove that it dominates. Hence, muntjack slash at each other with their tusk. Bosons push match and force their opponents vigorously backward. White-tailed deer lock antlers together wrestle until one deer is unbalanced.
                Fights however don’t signify killing. These may only be ritual trials of strength. In case of giving in, animals usually shows signal to avoid the risk of serious injury. In a dog fight for instance, presents his throat to a rival or rolls over. Then accepts the victor as boast.
                To be supreme and feared by many is not only a human fashion but animals’ as well. Becoming so much powerful over a territory grants a comfortable and easy life. This might cost a fight. But to be empowered right after is more than benefits.

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Parasitism and Predation

Wise and Fierce
Kerra L. Shayne Asturias


              The world is composed of different species with varying level of abilities and power. While others are inferior, to be gorged and destroyed is their fate, some are superior, and they gorge and destroy. This is the law of nature. The strongest dominates and the weakest is trampled.

             A relationship in which one organism feeds on the tissues or body fluids of another organism is parasitism. In parasitic relationship one member benefits and other is harmed. The member that benefits in a parasitic relationship is the parasite, and the member that is harmed is the host.

             If your dog or cat has had fleas or worms, you have had experience with parasitism. Usually a dog or cat is only need uncomfortable with flees, which live outside the host. But other parasite, such as tapeworms in an animals and mistletoe in plants, can weaken or kill the host. And increase in a parasite population can cause a decrease in a host population. However as the availability of host’s decreases, the parasite population is also controlled.
 
              But, parasite can spread easily in a crowded host population. Termites are parasite that live in trees and eat the cellulose present in trees. Parasite are the detrimental to their host’s health, sometimes causing its death. Example of parasites include leeches, lice and flees.

              The struggle for the survival is a natural phenomenon of the earth. Each species’ aims of existence are to perpetuate his own kind. Thus, creatures have to breed or they will perish. Once the young were laid, they will search for a green pastures were they can abundantly feed themselves and their new –born. Once found, the hunt is on.

              Hence, a cheetah chases a gazelle. An orb-web spider bundles of a grasshopper that has blundered into its web. Pangolin it’s as many as 200,000 ants in one night. A gray seal pursues a fish through the water. A tiger catches and kill a spotted deer. A red-backed shrike caught a lizard and impales it on its thorn ‘larder’.
              All these things took place because they have to. Unless you have flunked and consume a lower form of species, your existence may be threatened. Nevertheless, in the stringent world of predation, predators may also miss a kill. In this case, the hunted has its way out.  
               Anything you want you can have if then behaviour is right. The fight for the survival is continual battle of wit between the hunter and the hunted. Proper conduction of things along side with proper behavioural bearing is requirements if a predator would want to secure a successful hunt. On the other hand, the timely use of senses and vital strategy should be posses by the prey to avoid being eaten. A gazelle might have strong legs for escaping but if it would not run for its life, it surely would be caught and killed.
              Life for animals is a fight. There is a need to chase and run, to swoop and swoon, to kill and live. For the world Is but a struggle of existence!



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Article 5 (Websource)

Tiny Crab Protects Corals
mongabay.com
October 23, 2006

 
The relationship between the crab and the coral is detailed in the November 2006 issue of the journal Coral Reefs. 

A news release describing the research by University of California, Santa Barbara scientists appears below. 

University of California - Santa Barbara: Tiny 'housekeeper' crabs help prevent coral death in South Pacific 

Tiny crabs that live in South Pacific coral help to prevent the coral from dying by providing regular cleaning "services" that may be critical to the life of coral reefs around the world, according to scientists from the University of California, Santa Barbara. 
The story of the relationship between the crab and the coral is described in the November 2006 issue of the journal Coral Reefs and is now available on-line. The coral provides a home and protection for the crabs. The crabs provide "housekeeping" duties for the coral, routinely "sweeping" out sediment that falls onto the coral, according to the study. 

Thus the relationship between the corals and the trapeziid crabs is mutually beneficial, or symbiotic. The little crabs, measuring only a centimeter wide, make their home in branching corals like Acropora or Pocillopora. The research was done on coral reefs near the shore of the French Polynesian island of Moorea, in the South Pacific. 

"Although we don't know much about these crabs, we do know that they are 'picky,' and are always tasting and exploring," said Hannah L. Stewart, first author of the paper and a postdoctoral researcher at UCSB's Marine Science Institute (MSI). "They use their front appendages to manipulate and shovel out the sediment." 

Stewart said that this family of crabs is common around the world. "This relationship probably occurs all over the Pacific and is likely more ubiquitous than we know," she said. "Crabs are in corals everywhere. There are major ecological implications to this research; species of crabs that associate with corals may be more important than we realized." 

She explained that coral reefs are one of the most productive and diverse ecosystems in the world. They support more than nine million species and provide a livelihood for millions of people around the globe. 

The accumulation of sediment on coral tissue is known to reduce metabolic and tissue growth rates of coral, increasing the probability of bleaching and coral death. Many corals can remove some sediment from their surfaces but high sediment loads can be deadly. Predicted increases in sedimentation threaten coral reefs in many near shore areas around the world. 

Coral reefs are threatened by a variety of environmental changes. For example, higher water temperatures and increased ultraviolet radiation, which are associated with climate change, are sources of widespread coral bleaching. 

Changing land use patterns, caused by population increase on the coasts, are another threat because population growth increases the sediment load on coral. This is due to the higher amount of water run-off from development, deforestation with erosion, and expansion of agriculture. 

The studies were conducted as part of The Moorea Coral Reef Long Term Ecological Research Site (MCR LTER), located in the complex of coral reefs and lagoons that surround the island of Moorea. Stewart performed the research with Sally Holbrook, professor and vice chair of UCSB's Department of Ecology, Evolution and Marine Biology; Russell Schmitt, a professor in the same department and the director of the MSI's Coastal Research Center; and Andrew Brooks, assistant research biologist at the MSI and deputy director of the MCR LTER. Experiments were carried out in the coral reef as well as in the laboratory. 

The scientists showed the importance of trapeziid crabs by gently removing crabs from sections of the two species of branching corals on a coastal reef. This resulted in 50 to 80 percent of those corals dying in less than a month. By contrast, all corals with crabs survived. The nature of this common symbiotic relationship had not been recognized until this study. For surviving corals that lacked crabs, growth was slower, tissue bleaching was greater, and sediment load was higher. Laboratory experiments revealed that corals with crabs not only shed substantially more of the sediments deposited on coral surfaces, but also that crabs were most effective at removing grain sizes that were most damaging to coral tissues. These were the largest grains studied, those measuring two to four millimeters in width.


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Article 4 (Websource)

Lichens: an Obligate Symbiotic Relationship
and Mycorrhizae

SEM of Lichen: the linear fungal hyphae and the round ball-like algal groupings

The basic structure of a lichen is a mass of fungal hyphae; inbedded in this mass is a zone of algae .
  • 25+ different algal species are involved in associations, with the majority of them green algae (although some species are cyanobacteria ( blue-greens)).
  • The fungus partner itself is generally an ascomycete, although again many different species of fungi can form this relationship.
  • The fungi gain nutrition from the photosynthetic algae while the fungi house and supposedly protect the algae from the elements providing moisture, perhaps protection from the sun and a source of minerals.
  • There is some dispute how mutualistic the relationship is. There is a fine line between the role of protector and hostage holder. It may be, that as the algae can do well on their own that the relationship may be less obligate, though certainly intimate. Nutrients may be simply leaking out of the algae; it may be that the fungi is benignly parasitizing the algae.





Mycorrhizae
Mycorrhizae is the relationship between a fungus and a higher plant's root system. In this relationship, the plant feeds the fungus, while the fungus supplies the plant with mineral nutrients ( especially phosphorous) and according to some sources additional moisture.

  • This relationship is so important, that some researchers believe the the association formed early in evolution, allowing the first land plants to survive on a soiless, nutrient poor landscape.
  • When reestablishing forests in areas decimated by intense logging or forest death due to pollution ( from copper smelting for example) seedlings are first inoculated with spores of symbiotic fungal species to aid in successful reintroduction.

Note the red inclusion in the root cells - these are the endomycorrhizae living in parenchyma cells.


 

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Article 3 (Websource)

Disappearance of elephants and giraffes
causes ecological chain reaction
mongabay.com
January 10, 2008

The disappearance of elephants, giraffes and other grazing animals from the eastern African savanna could send ecological ripple effects all the way to the savanna's ants and the acacia trees they inhabit, warns a new study published in the journalScience. 

Researchers have long known of mutualisms — in which two unrelated species depend directly on each other but "are just beginning to understand how other components of an ecosystem can affect these relationships," according to a statement from Science. The new research, led by Todd Palmer, an assistant professor of zoology at the University of Florida, suggests that small changes in species composition can have dramatic impacts throughout the ecosystem. 

Fencing off areas of acacia trees at a study site in Kenya, Palmer and colleagues found that when protected from herbivores, some Acacias declined. The results, seemingly counterintuitive, result from a mutualistic relationship between acacia trees and ants. The acacias provide food (in the form of nectaries) and shelter (at the base of thorns on the acacia tree) for three species of ants, while the insects offer protection for the tree against pests like stem-boring beetles. 
The scientists found that when elephants, giraffes and other large mammals could no longer graze on the acacias, trees produced less nectar to support aggressively defensive ant species. Thus ant colony size decreased and a less protective, fourth ant species became dominant over the others. The acacias then became vulnerable to scale insects and wood-boring beetle whose cavities serve as a home for the useless fourth species of ant. Overall the researchers found that fenced trees were twice as likely to die as the unfenced ones and grew 65 percent more slowly. 

"If you get rid of the large mammals, it shifts the balance of power, because the trees default on their end of the bargain," said Palmer. "When the trees opt out, their hard-working employees starve and grow weak, which causes them to lose out. So, ironically, getting rid of the mammals causes individual trees to grow more slowly and die younger."

"Throughout sub-Saharan Africa these large mammals are threatened by human population growth, habitat fragmentation, over-hunting, and other degradation, so we have to wonder how their loss will affect these ecosystems," explained Palmer. "It's becoming increasingly clear that anthropogenic change can have rapid and unanticipated consequences for cooperative species interactions, and we caught this happening in real time." 


Reference
Palmer, T.M. et al (2008). Breakdown of an Ant-Plant Mutualism Follows the Loss of Large Herbivores from an African Savanna. Science 11 January 2008


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Article 2 (Websource)

Invasive ant interferes with gecko's role 
in pollinating endangered plant
mongabay.com
November 28, 2008


Invasive ants are destroying the symbiotic relationship between a colorful gecko and a critically endangered flower on the island of Mauritius, reports New Scientist citing research published by Dennis Hansen and Christine Müller in the journal Biotopica. 

Hansen and Müller found that the blue-tailed gecko (Phelsuma cepediana) - a species responsible for pollination and seed dispersal of the Roussea simplex shrub - avoids plants that have been colonized by the invasive white-footed ant (Technomyrmex albipes). Colonized individuals have lower seed counts, suggesting that ants are taking a toll on the rare species. 

Hansen and Müller led research published last year in American Naturalist revealing the importance of the day gecko in pollination of plants endemic to Mauritius:
Neon green gecko key to preventing Mauritian plant extinction (April 17, 2007)




Citations:
  • Dennis M. Hansen and Christine B. Müller. Invasive Ants Disrupt Gecko Pollination and Seed Dispersal of the Endangered Plant Roussea simplex in Mauritius. Published Online: Oct 31 2008 DOI: 10.1111/j.1744-7429.2008.00473.x
  • Matt Kaplan. Invasive ant ruins gecko's sweet relationship. New Scientist 28 November 2008

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Article 1 (Websource)

Lemurs: key to the health of Madagascar's forests
Rhett A. Butler, mongabay.com
June 12, 2008


Lemurs play a key role in the health of Madagascar's tropical rainforests said a renowned primatologist speaking at a meeting of conservation biologists in Paramaribo, Suriname. 

Analyzing 20 years of data on lemur feeding habits in the forests of Ranomafana National Park, Dr. Patricia Wright found that entire genera of plant are dependent on a single species of lemur for dispersal. The results suggest that the loss of even a single species of lemur may threaten the survival of one or more plant species. 

"The loss of one lemur species could threaten the persistence of a fruit family," she told biologists at the annual meeting for the Association of Tropical Biology and Conservation (ATBC). "Forest composition depends on the entire community of lemurs. Therefore conservation must be at the community level."
Worryingly Wright noted that the "tastiest" lemur as revealed by surveys of more than 2000 individuals in local villages was also one of the most important dispersers: the black-and-white ruffed lemur. 

Unlike other parts of the world where most seed dispersal is done by birds, rodents, ungulates, and bats, lemurs appear to be the most important seed dispersers in Madagascar. More than two-thirds of birds on the island are insectivores, as are most species of bats. No ungulates, possums, or squirrels are native to the forests of Madagascar. 

Wright said future research in this area would focus on genetic tagging of fruits, tracking of seedlings, comparing feeding patterns across different sites in Madagascar, and mapping tree distribution within the forest. 

"Lemurs are very important in Madagascar, now we're trying to find out how important," she concluded. 

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